Artemis Accord – A Critical Analysis of Global Norm-Making in Outer Space -

Article

Open Access

by Frederick Boamah¹
¹ University of Ghana (Accra, Ghana)
DOI: https://doi.org/10.29202/asl/15/5
Received: 01 May 2025 / Accepted: 29 June 2025 / Published: 30 August 2025

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Abstract

Outer space and its resources have gained geostrategic importance in recent years due to their vital uses and their potential for humanity’s future. This has led to a surge in global efforts to explore outer space, while also revealing weaknesses in the current governance framework. Although existing norms are based on the shared heritage of mankind, disagreements remain on how this ownership should be managed. Additionally, critical gaps, such as the lack of consensus on fundamental norms regarding issues like the exploitation of the moon and its militarization, debris removal, and the legal status of outer space resources, among others, have increased global competition and elevated the contestations to national interest and security considerations. Given the above context, the United States and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) have created the Artemis Accords to establish guiding principles relating to the exploration and use of the Moon and other celestial bodies. This analysis evaluates the extent to which the Artemis Accords conform to established international legal frameworks, such as the Outer Space Treaty and the Moon Agreement, drawing on UN resolutions, NASA policy frameworks, and academic literature. It specifically investigates whether the principles embodied in the Accords pose a unilateral challenge to existing international space law or signify the formation of new norms. Ultimately, this study suggests a way forward to aligning the Artemis Accords with emerging trends in outer space development and governance.

Keywords: Outer Space Treaty, International Law, International Legal Norms, Soft Law, Artemis Accords, United States Space Policy, National Aeronautics and Space Administration

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Boamah, Frederick (2025) Artemis Accord – A Critical Analysis of Global Norm-Making in Outer Space. Advanced Space Law, Volume 15, 58-72. https://doi.org/10.29202/asl/15/5

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